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November 4, 2020
Accepted
February 26, 2022
Published
January 2, 2023
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Abstract
The paper is a compendium of the talks delivered in the symposium on ‘Epilepsy: In Spanish: Pediatric Epilepsy. When Drugs Don´t Work’ in the ‘Joint 16th International Child Neurology Society and 49th Child Neurology Society meeting’ held in October 2020. The paper addresses the challenges and barriers of epilepsy surgery in pediatric population with drug resistant epilepsy from different perspectives, including epidemiology, multifactorial limitations, potential benefits, therapeutic approaches and novel techniques that have incremented the utilization of epilepsy surgery. The main objective of this symposium and subsequent paper is to let the readers know about other alternatives that can be used in their patients for improving their quality of life and outcomes, taking into account the devastating consequences in all aspects of life (risk of prolonged seizures, status epilepticus, physical injuries, shortened life span and risk of “Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy Patients” (SUDEP). Despite evidence of the beneficial effects of surgery in children (reduction in seizure severity/frequency, improvement in cognitive and neurodevelopmental functions, reduced mortality, improvement in quality of life), class I evidence for the superiority of epilepsy surgery over continued medical treatment in pediatric surgical candidates and reduced cost in the long term, it continues to be an underutilized resource. It is essential to concentrate the effort of all possible stakeholders including governmental and non-governmental agencies to recognize the importance and create epilepsy surgery programs.
Keywords
Refractory epilepsy
children
epilepsy surgery
drug resistant epilepsy
pediatric
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Pérez Poveda, J. C., Alonso Vanegas , M. ., Rios-Pohl, L., Pestana-Knight, E., Genel Castillo, M. A. ., & Vidaurre, J. (2023). Epilepsy surgery in pediatric population: a perspective from low-income countries. Journal of the International Child Neurology Association, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.17724/jicna.2023.217
References
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[1] Téllez-Zenteno JF, Hernández-Ronquillo L, Buckley S, Zahagun R, Rizvi S. A validation of the new definition of drug-resistant epilepsy by the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2014 Jun;55(6):829-34
[2] Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2000 Feb 3;342(5):314-9.
[3] Chen Z, Brodie MJ, Liew D, Kwan P. Treatment Outcomes in Patients With Newly Diagnosed Epilepsy Treated With Established and New Antiepileptic Drugs: A 30-Year Longitudinal Cohort Study. JAMA Neurol. 2018 Mar 1;75(3):279-286
[4] Sperling MR, Barshow S, Nei M, Asadi-Pooya AA. A reappraisal of mortality after epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 2016 May 24;86(21):1938-44
[5] Pestana Knight EM, Schiltz NK, Bakaki PM, Koroukian SM, Lhatoo SD, Kaiboriboon K. Increasing utilization of pediatric epilepsy surgery in the United States between 1997 and 2009. Epilepsia. 2015 Mar;56(3):375-81
[6] Kari Modalsli Aaberg, MD,a,b Nina Gunnes, MSc, PhD,b Inger Johanne Bakken, MSc, PhD,b Camilla Lund Søraas, MD, PhD,b Aleksander Berntsen, MD,c Per Magnus, MD, PhD,b Morten I. Lossius, MD, PhD,a Camilla Stoltenberg, MD, PhD,b,d Incidence and Prevalence of Childhood Epilepsy: A Nationwide Cohort Study. PEDIATRICS Volume 139, number 5, May 2017
[7] Richard Chin, MD, PhD,e,f Pål Surén, MD, PhDa,bGeerts A, et al. Course and outcome of childhood epilepsy: a 15-year follow-up of the Dutch Study of Epilepsy in Childhood. Epilepsia 2010;51:1189–97.
[8] Berg AT, et al. Complete remission of childhood-onset epilepsy: stability and prediction over two decades. Brain 2014;137(Pt 12):3213–22.
[9] Sillanpaa M, Schmidt D. Early seizure frequency and aetiology predict long-term medical outcome in childhood-onset epilepsy. Brain 2009;132
[10] Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE. Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2010; 51:1069-1077.
[11] Wang Xue-Ping, MD, Wang Hai-Jiao, MD, Zhu Li-Na, MD, Da Xu, MD, Liu Ling, MD. Risk factors for drug-resistant epilepsy. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (2019) 98:30
[12] D. Smith, B.A. Defalla and D.W. Chadwick. The misdiagnosis of epilepsy and the management of refractory epilepsy in a specialist clinic. Q J Med 1999; 92:15–23
[13] Ryvlin P, Cross JH, Rheims S. Epilepsy surgery in children and adults. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(11):1114-26.
[14] Dwivedi R, Ramanujam B, Chandra PS, et al. Surgery for drug-resistant epilepsy in children. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:1639–1647.
[15] Bowen JM, Snead OC, Chandra K, et al. Epilepsy care in Ontario: an economic analysis of increasing access to epilepsy surgery. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser. 2012;12(18):1–41.
[16] Espinosa-Jovel C, Toledano R, Aledo-Serrano Á, García-Morales I, Gil-Nagel A. Epidemiological profile of epilepsy in low income populations. Seizure. 2018 Mar;56:67-72. doi: 10.1016/j.seizure.2018.02.002. Epub 2018 Feb 8. PMID: 29453113.
[17] Campos G Manuel, Pomata H B, Alonso-Vanegas MA, and Sakamoto AC. Essentials for the establishment of an epilepsy surgery program. In: Lűders HO. (Ed) Textbook of epilepsy surgery. Informa UK LTD. 1537-1544, 2008 ISBN-13: 978-184184 576-60
[18] Steven DA, Vasquez CM, Delgado JC, Zapata-Luyo W, Becerra A, Barreto E, Arango MF, Burneo JG. Establishment of epilepsy surgery in Peru. Neurology. 2018 Aug 21;91(8):368-370. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000006029. PMID: 30126880.
[19] Pestana Knight EM, Schiltz NK, Bakaki PM, Koroukian SM, Lhatoo SD, Kaiboriboon K. Increasing utilization of pediatric epilepsy surgery in the United States between 1997 and 2009. Epilepsia 2015;56:375-81.
[20] Brunklaus A, Leu C, Gramm M, Perez-Palma E, Iqbal S, Lal D. Time to move beyond genetics towards biomedical data-driven translational genomic research in severe paediatric epilepsies. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2020;24:35-9.
[21] Gonzalez-Martinez J, Lachhwani D. Stereoelectroencephalography in children with cortical dysplasia: technique and results. Childs Nerv Syst 2014;30:1853-7.
[22] Isnard J, Taussig D, Bartolomei F et al. French guidelines on stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG). Neurophysiol Clin 2018;48:5-13.
[23] Minotti L, Montavont A, Scholly J, Tyvaert L, Taussig D. Indications and limits of stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG). Neurophysiol Clin 2018;48:15-24.
[24] Ho AL, Muftuoglu Y, Pendharkar AV et al. Robot-guided pediatric stereoelectroencephalography: single-institution experience. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;22:1-8.
[25] McGovern RA, Knight EP, Gupta A et al. Robot-assisted stereoelectroencephalography in children. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;23:288-96.
[26] Abel TJ, Varela OR, Amorim-Leite R et al. Frameless robot-assisted stereoelectroencephalography in children: technical aspects and comparison with Talairach frame technique. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;22:37-46.
[27] Gonzalez-Martinez J, Mullin J, Bulacio J et al. Stereoelectroencephalography in children and adolescents with difficult-to-localize refractory focal epilepsy. Neurosurgery 2014;75:258-68.
[28] Liu YO, Zhou WJ, Hong B, Zhao T, Wang YF. Surgical outcomes in patients with epilepsy after viral encephalitis: contribution of SEEG study. BMC Neurol 2019;19:165.
[29] Taussig D, Lebas A, Chipaux M et al. Stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) in children surgically cured of their epilepsy. Neurophysiol Clin 2016;46:3-15.
[30] Brian Nils Lundstrom, MD, PhD Jamie Van Gompel, MD Jeffrey Britton, MD Katherine Nickels, MD Nicholas Wetjen, MD Gregory Worrell, MD, PhD Matt Stead, MD, PhD. Chronic Subthreshold Cortical Stimulation to Treat Focal Epilepsy. JAMA Neurology November 2016; 73:1370-1371.
[31] Davis P, Gaitanis J. Neuromodulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy: A Review of Current Approaches and Future Directions. Clin Ther 2020; 42: 1140-1154.
[32] Starnes K, Miler K, Wong-Kisiel L, Lundstrom BA Review of Neurostimulation for Epilepsy in Pediatrics. Brain Sci 2019; 9: 283; 2-18.
[33] Yan H., Toyota E., Anderson M., Abel T.J., Donner E., Kalia S.K., Drake J., Rutka J.T., Ibrahim G.M. A systematic review of deep brain stimulation for the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in childhood. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2018; 23: 274–284
[34] Karsy M, Guan J, Ducis K, Bollo R. Emerging surgical therapies in the treatment of pediatric Epilepsy. Transl Pediatr 2016;5(2):67-78
[35] Gadgil N, Muir M, Melissa A. Lopresti MA, Lam SK. An update on pediatric surgical epilepsy: Part II. Surgical Neurology International 2019;10(258).
[36] Panov F, Ganaha S, Haskell S, Fields M, La Vga-Talbott M, Wolf S, McGoldrick P, Marcuse L, Ghatan S. Safety of responsive neurostimulation in pediatric patients with medically refractory Epilepsy. J Neurosug Pediatr 2020; 23: 68–81
[37] Brian Nils Lundstrom, Gregory A. Worrell, Matt Stead & Jamie J. Van Gompel. Chronic subthreshold cortical stimulation: a therapeutic and potentially restorative therapy for focal epilepsy. Expert Rev Neurother. 2017;17: 661-666.
[38] Auvichayapat N, Rotenberg A, Gersner R, et al. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Treatment of Refractory Childhood Focal Epilepsy. Brain Stimulation 2013; 6: 696-700.
[39] Auvichayapat N, Sinsupan K, Tunkamnerdthai O, Auvichayapat P. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Treatment of Childhood Pharmacoresistant Lennox–Gastaut Syndrome: A Pilot Study. Front Neurol 2016; 26: 1-8.
[40] Hoppe C, Helmstaedter C. Laser interstitial thermotherapy (LiTT) in pediatric epilepsy surgery. Seizure 2020; 77: 69-75.
[41] Abe K, Taira T. Focused Ultrasound Treatment, Present and Future. Neurol Med Chir 2017; 57: 386-91.
References
[1] Téllez-Zenteno JF, Hernández-Ronquillo L, Buckley S, Zahagun R, Rizvi S. A validation of the new definition of drug-resistant epilepsy by the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2014 Jun;55(6):829-34
[2] Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2000 Feb 3;342(5):314-9.
[3] Chen Z, Brodie MJ, Liew D, Kwan P. Treatment Outcomes in Patients With Newly Diagnosed Epilepsy Treated With Established and New Antiepileptic Drugs: A 30-Year Longitudinal Cohort Study. JAMA Neurol. 2018 Mar 1;75(3):279-286
[4] Sperling MR, Barshow S, Nei M, Asadi-Pooya AA. A reappraisal of mortality after epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 2016 May 24;86(21):1938-44
[5] Pestana Knight EM, Schiltz NK, Bakaki PM, Koroukian SM, Lhatoo SD, Kaiboriboon K. Increasing utilization of pediatric epilepsy surgery in the United States between 1997 and 2009. Epilepsia. 2015 Mar;56(3):375-81
[6] Kari Modalsli Aaberg, MD,a,b Nina Gunnes, MSc, PhD,b Inger Johanne Bakken, MSc, PhD,b Camilla Lund Søraas, MD, PhD,b Aleksander Berntsen, MD,c Per Magnus, MD, PhD,b Morten I. Lossius, MD, PhD,a Camilla Stoltenberg, MD, PhD,b,d Incidence and Prevalence of Childhood Epilepsy: A Nationwide Cohort Study. PEDIATRICS Volume 139, number 5, May 2017
[7] Richard Chin, MD, PhD,e,f Pål Surén, MD, PhDa,bGeerts A, et al. Course and outcome of childhood epilepsy: a 15-year follow-up of the Dutch Study of Epilepsy in Childhood. Epilepsia 2010;51:1189–97.
[8] Berg AT, et al. Complete remission of childhood-onset epilepsy: stability and prediction over two decades. Brain 2014;137(Pt 12):3213–22.
[9] Sillanpaa M, Schmidt D. Early seizure frequency and aetiology predict long-term medical outcome in childhood-onset epilepsy. Brain 2009;132
[10] Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE. Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2010; 51:1069-1077.
[11] Wang Xue-Ping, MD, Wang Hai-Jiao, MD, Zhu Li-Na, MD, Da Xu, MD, Liu Ling, MD. Risk factors for drug-resistant epilepsy. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (2019) 98:30
[12] D. Smith, B.A. Defalla and D.W. Chadwick. The misdiagnosis of epilepsy and the management of refractory epilepsy in a specialist clinic. Q J Med 1999; 92:15–23
[13] Ryvlin P, Cross JH, Rheims S. Epilepsy surgery in children and adults. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(11):1114-26.
[14] Dwivedi R, Ramanujam B, Chandra PS, et al. Surgery for drug-resistant epilepsy in children. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:1639–1647.
[15] Bowen JM, Snead OC, Chandra K, et al. Epilepsy care in Ontario: an economic analysis of increasing access to epilepsy surgery. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser. 2012;12(18):1–41.
[16] Espinosa-Jovel C, Toledano R, Aledo-Serrano Á, García-Morales I, Gil-Nagel A. Epidemiological profile of epilepsy in low income populations. Seizure. 2018 Mar;56:67-72. doi: 10.1016/j.seizure.2018.02.002. Epub 2018 Feb 8. PMID: 29453113.
[17] Campos G Manuel, Pomata H B, Alonso-Vanegas MA, and Sakamoto AC. Essentials for the establishment of an epilepsy surgery program. In: Lűders HO. (Ed) Textbook of epilepsy surgery. Informa UK LTD. 1537-1544, 2008 ISBN-13: 978-184184 576-60
[18] Steven DA, Vasquez CM, Delgado JC, Zapata-Luyo W, Becerra A, Barreto E, Arango MF, Burneo JG. Establishment of epilepsy surgery in Peru. Neurology. 2018 Aug 21;91(8):368-370. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000006029. PMID: 30126880.
[19] Pestana Knight EM, Schiltz NK, Bakaki PM, Koroukian SM, Lhatoo SD, Kaiboriboon K. Increasing utilization of pediatric epilepsy surgery in the United States between 1997 and 2009. Epilepsia 2015;56:375-81.
[20] Brunklaus A, Leu C, Gramm M, Perez-Palma E, Iqbal S, Lal D. Time to move beyond genetics towards biomedical data-driven translational genomic research in severe paediatric epilepsies. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2020;24:35-9.
[21] Gonzalez-Martinez J, Lachhwani D. Stereoelectroencephalography in children with cortical dysplasia: technique and results. Childs Nerv Syst 2014;30:1853-7.
[22] Isnard J, Taussig D, Bartolomei F et al. French guidelines on stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG). Neurophysiol Clin 2018;48:5-13.
[23] Minotti L, Montavont A, Scholly J, Tyvaert L, Taussig D. Indications and limits of stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG). Neurophysiol Clin 2018;48:15-24.
[24] Ho AL, Muftuoglu Y, Pendharkar AV et al. Robot-guided pediatric stereoelectroencephalography: single-institution experience. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;22:1-8.
[25] McGovern RA, Knight EP, Gupta A et al. Robot-assisted stereoelectroencephalography in children. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;23:288-96.
[26] Abel TJ, Varela OR, Amorim-Leite R et al. Frameless robot-assisted stereoelectroencephalography in children: technical aspects and comparison with Talairach frame technique. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;22:37-46.
[27] Gonzalez-Martinez J, Mullin J, Bulacio J et al. Stereoelectroencephalography in children and adolescents with difficult-to-localize refractory focal epilepsy. Neurosurgery 2014;75:258-68.
[28] Liu YO, Zhou WJ, Hong B, Zhao T, Wang YF. Surgical outcomes in patients with epilepsy after viral encephalitis: contribution of SEEG study. BMC Neurol 2019;19:165.
[29] Taussig D, Lebas A, Chipaux M et al. Stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) in children surgically cured of their epilepsy. Neurophysiol Clin 2016;46:3-15.
[30] Brian Nils Lundstrom, MD, PhD Jamie Van Gompel, MD Jeffrey Britton, MD Katherine Nickels, MD Nicholas Wetjen, MD Gregory Worrell, MD, PhD Matt Stead, MD, PhD. Chronic Subthreshold Cortical Stimulation to Treat Focal Epilepsy. JAMA Neurology November 2016; 73:1370-1371.
[31] Davis P, Gaitanis J. Neuromodulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy: A Review of Current Approaches and Future Directions. Clin Ther 2020; 42: 1140-1154.
[32] Starnes K, Miler K, Wong-Kisiel L, Lundstrom BA Review of Neurostimulation for Epilepsy in Pediatrics. Brain Sci 2019; 9: 283; 2-18.
[33] Yan H., Toyota E., Anderson M., Abel T.J., Donner E., Kalia S.K., Drake J., Rutka J.T., Ibrahim G.M. A systematic review of deep brain stimulation for the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in childhood. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2018; 23: 274–284
[34] Karsy M, Guan J, Ducis K, Bollo R. Emerging surgical therapies in the treatment of pediatric Epilepsy. Transl Pediatr 2016;5(2):67-78
[35] Gadgil N, Muir M, Melissa A. Lopresti MA, Lam SK. An update on pediatric surgical epilepsy: Part II. Surgical Neurology International 2019;10(258).
[36] Panov F, Ganaha S, Haskell S, Fields M, La Vga-Talbott M, Wolf S, McGoldrick P, Marcuse L, Ghatan S. Safety of responsive neurostimulation in pediatric patients with medically refractory Epilepsy. J Neurosug Pediatr 2020; 23: 68–81
[37] Brian Nils Lundstrom, Gregory A. Worrell, Matt Stead & Jamie J. Van Gompel. Chronic subthreshold cortical stimulation: a therapeutic and potentially restorative therapy for focal epilepsy. Expert Rev Neurother. 2017;17: 661-666.
[38] Auvichayapat N, Rotenberg A, Gersner R, et al. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Treatment of Refractory Childhood Focal Epilepsy. Brain Stimulation 2013; 6: 696-700.
[39] Auvichayapat N, Sinsupan K, Tunkamnerdthai O, Auvichayapat P. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Treatment of Childhood Pharmacoresistant Lennox–Gastaut Syndrome: A Pilot Study. Front Neurol 2016; 26: 1-8.
[40] Hoppe C, Helmstaedter C. Laser interstitial thermotherapy (LiTT) in pediatric epilepsy surgery. Seizure 2020; 77: 69-75.
[41] Abe K, Taira T. Focused Ultrasound Treatment, Present and Future. Neurol Med Chir 2017; 57: 386-91.
[2] Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2000 Feb 3;342(5):314-9.
[3] Chen Z, Brodie MJ, Liew D, Kwan P. Treatment Outcomes in Patients With Newly Diagnosed Epilepsy Treated With Established and New Antiepileptic Drugs: A 30-Year Longitudinal Cohort Study. JAMA Neurol. 2018 Mar 1;75(3):279-286
[4] Sperling MR, Barshow S, Nei M, Asadi-Pooya AA. A reappraisal of mortality after epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 2016 May 24;86(21):1938-44
[5] Pestana Knight EM, Schiltz NK, Bakaki PM, Koroukian SM, Lhatoo SD, Kaiboriboon K. Increasing utilization of pediatric epilepsy surgery in the United States between 1997 and 2009. Epilepsia. 2015 Mar;56(3):375-81
[6] Kari Modalsli Aaberg, MD,a,b Nina Gunnes, MSc, PhD,b Inger Johanne Bakken, MSc, PhD,b Camilla Lund Søraas, MD, PhD,b Aleksander Berntsen, MD,c Per Magnus, MD, PhD,b Morten I. Lossius, MD, PhD,a Camilla Stoltenberg, MD, PhD,b,d Incidence and Prevalence of Childhood Epilepsy: A Nationwide Cohort Study. PEDIATRICS Volume 139, number 5, May 2017
[7] Richard Chin, MD, PhD,e,f Pål Surén, MD, PhDa,bGeerts A, et al. Course and outcome of childhood epilepsy: a 15-year follow-up of the Dutch Study of Epilepsy in Childhood. Epilepsia 2010;51:1189–97.
[8] Berg AT, et al. Complete remission of childhood-onset epilepsy: stability and prediction over two decades. Brain 2014;137(Pt 12):3213–22.
[9] Sillanpaa M, Schmidt D. Early seizure frequency and aetiology predict long-term medical outcome in childhood-onset epilepsy. Brain 2009;132
[10] Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE. Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2010; 51:1069-1077.
[11] Wang Xue-Ping, MD, Wang Hai-Jiao, MD, Zhu Li-Na, MD, Da Xu, MD, Liu Ling, MD. Risk factors for drug-resistant epilepsy. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (2019) 98:30
[12] D. Smith, B.A. Defalla and D.W. Chadwick. The misdiagnosis of epilepsy and the management of refractory epilepsy in a specialist clinic. Q J Med 1999; 92:15–23
[13] Ryvlin P, Cross JH, Rheims S. Epilepsy surgery in children and adults. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(11):1114-26.
[14] Dwivedi R, Ramanujam B, Chandra PS, et al. Surgery for drug-resistant epilepsy in children. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:1639–1647.
[15] Bowen JM, Snead OC, Chandra K, et al. Epilepsy care in Ontario: an economic analysis of increasing access to epilepsy surgery. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser. 2012;12(18):1–41.
[16] Espinosa-Jovel C, Toledano R, Aledo-Serrano Á, García-Morales I, Gil-Nagel A. Epidemiological profile of epilepsy in low income populations. Seizure. 2018 Mar;56:67-72. doi: 10.1016/j.seizure.2018.02.002. Epub 2018 Feb 8. PMID: 29453113.
[17] Campos G Manuel, Pomata H B, Alonso-Vanegas MA, and Sakamoto AC. Essentials for the establishment of an epilepsy surgery program. In: Lűders HO. (Ed) Textbook of epilepsy surgery. Informa UK LTD. 1537-1544, 2008 ISBN-13: 978-184184 576-60
[18] Steven DA, Vasquez CM, Delgado JC, Zapata-Luyo W, Becerra A, Barreto E, Arango MF, Burneo JG. Establishment of epilepsy surgery in Peru. Neurology. 2018 Aug 21;91(8):368-370. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000006029. PMID: 30126880.
[19] Pestana Knight EM, Schiltz NK, Bakaki PM, Koroukian SM, Lhatoo SD, Kaiboriboon K. Increasing utilization of pediatric epilepsy surgery in the United States between 1997 and 2009. Epilepsia 2015;56:375-81.
[20] Brunklaus A, Leu C, Gramm M, Perez-Palma E, Iqbal S, Lal D. Time to move beyond genetics towards biomedical data-driven translational genomic research in severe paediatric epilepsies. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2020;24:35-9.
[21] Gonzalez-Martinez J, Lachhwani D. Stereoelectroencephalography in children with cortical dysplasia: technique and results. Childs Nerv Syst 2014;30:1853-7.
[22] Isnard J, Taussig D, Bartolomei F et al. French guidelines on stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG). Neurophysiol Clin 2018;48:5-13.
[23] Minotti L, Montavont A, Scholly J, Tyvaert L, Taussig D. Indications and limits of stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG). Neurophysiol Clin 2018;48:15-24.
[24] Ho AL, Muftuoglu Y, Pendharkar AV et al. Robot-guided pediatric stereoelectroencephalography: single-institution experience. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;22:1-8.
[25] McGovern RA, Knight EP, Gupta A et al. Robot-assisted stereoelectroencephalography in children. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;23:288-96.
[26] Abel TJ, Varela OR, Amorim-Leite R et al. Frameless robot-assisted stereoelectroencephalography in children: technical aspects and comparison with Talairach frame technique. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018;22:37-46.
[27] Gonzalez-Martinez J, Mullin J, Bulacio J et al. Stereoelectroencephalography in children and adolescents with difficult-to-localize refractory focal epilepsy. Neurosurgery 2014;75:258-68.
[28] Liu YO, Zhou WJ, Hong B, Zhao T, Wang YF. Surgical outcomes in patients with epilepsy after viral encephalitis: contribution of SEEG study. BMC Neurol 2019;19:165.
[29] Taussig D, Lebas A, Chipaux M et al. Stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) in children surgically cured of their epilepsy. Neurophysiol Clin 2016;46:3-15.
[30] Brian Nils Lundstrom, MD, PhD Jamie Van Gompel, MD Jeffrey Britton, MD Katherine Nickels, MD Nicholas Wetjen, MD Gregory Worrell, MD, PhD Matt Stead, MD, PhD. Chronic Subthreshold Cortical Stimulation to Treat Focal Epilepsy. JAMA Neurology November 2016; 73:1370-1371.
[31] Davis P, Gaitanis J. Neuromodulation for the Treatment of Epilepsy: A Review of Current Approaches and Future Directions. Clin Ther 2020; 42: 1140-1154.
[32] Starnes K, Miler K, Wong-Kisiel L, Lundstrom BA Review of Neurostimulation for Epilepsy in Pediatrics. Brain Sci 2019; 9: 283; 2-18.
[33] Yan H., Toyota E., Anderson M., Abel T.J., Donner E., Kalia S.K., Drake J., Rutka J.T., Ibrahim G.M. A systematic review of deep brain stimulation for the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in childhood. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2018; 23: 274–284
[34] Karsy M, Guan J, Ducis K, Bollo R. Emerging surgical therapies in the treatment of pediatric Epilepsy. Transl Pediatr 2016;5(2):67-78
[35] Gadgil N, Muir M, Melissa A. Lopresti MA, Lam SK. An update on pediatric surgical epilepsy: Part II. Surgical Neurology International 2019;10(258).
[36] Panov F, Ganaha S, Haskell S, Fields M, La Vga-Talbott M, Wolf S, McGoldrick P, Marcuse L, Ghatan S. Safety of responsive neurostimulation in pediatric patients with medically refractory Epilepsy. J Neurosug Pediatr 2020; 23: 68–81
[37] Brian Nils Lundstrom, Gregory A. Worrell, Matt Stead & Jamie J. Van Gompel. Chronic subthreshold cortical stimulation: a therapeutic and potentially restorative therapy for focal epilepsy. Expert Rev Neurother. 2017;17: 661-666.
[38] Auvichayapat N, Rotenberg A, Gersner R, et al. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Treatment of Refractory Childhood Focal Epilepsy. Brain Stimulation 2013; 6: 696-700.
[39] Auvichayapat N, Sinsupan K, Tunkamnerdthai O, Auvichayapat P. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Treatment of Childhood Pharmacoresistant Lennox–Gastaut Syndrome: A Pilot Study. Front Neurol 2016; 26: 1-8.
[40] Hoppe C, Helmstaedter C. Laser interstitial thermotherapy (LiTT) in pediatric epilepsy surgery. Seizure 2020; 77: 69-75.
[41] Abe K, Taira T. Focused Ultrasound Treatment, Present and Future. Neurol Med Chir 2017; 57: 386-91.