Article Sidebar
Submitted
April 8, 2020
Accepted
June 17, 2021
Published
December 11, 2021
Main Article Content
Abstract
Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological disorders to affect children, and has its highest incidence in infancy. Approximately one-quarter of children have seizures which are drug-resistant, and place the child at increased risk of cognitive delays, attention, behavior and psychiatric disorders, injury, sudden unexpected death and poor quality of life. This article presents a rational approach to the investigation and management of children with drug-resistant epilepsy.
Keywords
Drug resistant epilepsy
epilepsy surgery
ketogenic diet
Article Details
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Elaine Wirrell
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
How to Cite
Wirrell, E. (2021). Rational Approach to Children with Drug-Resistant Epilepsy: Drug Resistant Childhood Epilepsy. Journal of the International Child Neurology Association, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.17724/jicna.2021.191
References
-
1. Camfield CS, Camfield PR, Gordon K, Wirrell E, Dooley JM. Incidence of epilepsy in childhood and adolescence: a population-based study in Nova Scotia from 1977 to 1985. Epilepsia. 1996;37(1):19-23.
2. Wirrell EC, Grossardt BR, Wong-Kisiel LC, Nickels KC. Incidence and classification of new-onset epilepsy and epilepsy syndromes in children in Olmsted County, Minnesota from 1980 to 2004: a population-based study. Epilepsy Res. 2011;95(1-2):110-8.
3. Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia. 2010;51(6):1069-77.
4. Berg AT. Defining intractable epilepsy. Adv Neurol. 2006;97:5-10.
5. Wirrell EC. Predicting pharmacoresistance in pediatric epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54 Suppl 2:19-22.
6. Kotagal P, Costa M, Wyllie E, Wolgamuth B. Paroxysmal nonepileptic events in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2002;110(4):e46.
7. Park EG, Lee J, Lee BL, Lee M, Lee J. Paroxysmal nonepileptic events in pediatric patients. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;48:83-7.
8. Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, Connolly MB, French J, Guilhoto L, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: Position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017;58(4):512-21.
9. Gayatri NA, Livingston JH. Aggravation of epilepsy by anti-epileptic drugs. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48(5):394-8.
10. Gelisse P, Genton P, Kuate C, Pesenti A, Baldy-Moulinier M, Crespel A. Worsening of seizures by oxcarbazepine in juvenile idiopathic generalized epilepsies. Epilepsia. 2004;45(10):1282-6.
11. Sazgar M, Bourgeois BF. Aggravation of epilepsy by antiepileptic drugs. Pediatr Neurol. 2005;33(4):227-34.
12. Thomas P, Valton L, Genton P. Absence and myoclonic status epilepticus precipitated by antiepileptic drugs in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 5):1281-92.
13. Perucca E, Gram L, Avanzini G, Dulac O. Antiepileptic drugs as a cause of worsening seizures. Epilepsia. 1998;39(1):5-17.
14. Knake S, Hamer HM, Schomburg U, Oertel WH, Rosenow F. Tiagabine-induced absence status in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Seizure. 1999;8(5):314-7.
15. Guerrini R, Dravet C, Genton P, Belmonte A, Kaminska A, Dulac O. Lamotrigine and seizure aggravation in severe myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1998;39(5):508-12.
16. Dhamija R, Moseley BD, Cascino GD, Wirrell EC. A population-based study of long-term outcome of epilepsy in childhood with a focal or hemispheric lesion on neuroimaging. Epilepsia. 2011;52(8):1522-6.
17. Yildiz EP, Gunes D, Bektas G, Aksu Uzunhan T, Tatli B, Caliskan M, et al. Predictive factors of drug-resistant epilepsy in children presenting under 2 years of age: experience of a tertiary center in Turkey. Acta Neurol Belg. 2018;118(1):71-5.
18. Wirrell EC, Wong-Kisiel LC, Mandrekar J, Nickels KC. What predicts enduring intractability in children who appear medically intractable in the first 2 years after diagnosis? Epilepsia. 2013;54(6):1056-64.
19. Moosa AN, Wyllie E. Focal epileptogenic lesions. Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;111:493-510.
20. Wirrell E, Wong-Kisiel L, Mandrekar J, Nickels K. Predictors and course of medically intractable epilepsy in young children presenting before 36 months of age: a retrospective, population-based study. Epilepsia. 2012;53(9):1563-9.
21. Mohamed A, Wyllie E, Ruggieri P, Kotagal P, Babb T, Hilbig A, et al. Temporal lobe epilepsy due to hippocampal sclerosis in pediatric candidates for epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 2001;56(12):1643-9.
22. Loddenkemper T, Cosmo G, Kotagal P, Haut J, Klaas P, Gupta A, et al. Epilepsy surgery in children with electrical status epilepticus in sleep. Neurosurgery. 2009;64(2):328-37; discussion 37.
23. Hnojcikova M, Nickels KC, Wetjen NM, Buchhalter JR, Raffel C, Wirrell EC. EEG and neuroimaging studies in young children having epilepsy surgery. Pediatr Neurol. 2010;43(5):335-40.
24. Saneto RP, Wyllie E. Epilepsy surgery in infancy. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2000;7(3):187-93.
25. Gowda S, Salazar F, Bingaman WE, Kotagal P, Lachhwani DL, Gupta A, et al. Surgery for catastrophic epilepsy in infants 6 months of age and younger. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2010;5(6):603-7.
26. Wyllie E. Surgery for catastrophic localization-related epilepsy in infants. Epilepsia. 1996;37 Suppl 1:S22-5.
27. Pearl PL. Amenable Treatable Severe Pediatric Epilepsies. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2016;23(2):158-66.
28. Shellhaas RA, Wusthoff CJ, Tsuchida TN, Glass HC, Chu CJ, Massey SL, et al. Profile of neonatal epilepsies: Characteristics of a prospective US cohort. Neurology. 2017;89(9):893-9.
29. Berg AT, Coryell J, Saneto RP, Grinspan ZM, Alexander JJ, Kekis M, et al. Early-Life Epilepsies and the Emerging Role of Genetic Testing. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(9):863-71.
30. Axeen EJT, Olson HE. Neonatal epilepsy genetics. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2018;23(3):197-203.
31. Coryell J, Gaillard WD, Shellhaas RA, Grinspan ZM, Wirrell EC, Knupp KG, et al. Neuroimaging of Early Life Epilepsy. Pediatrics. 2018;142(3).
32. Suleiman J, Brilot F, Lang B, Vincent A, Dale RC. Autoimmune epilepsy in children: case series and proposed guidelines for identification. Epilepsia. 2013;54(6):1036-45.
33. Suleiman J, Dale RC. The recognition and treatment of autoimmune epilepsy in children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2015;57(5):431-40.
34. Wong-Kisiel LC, McKeon A, Wirrell EC. Autoimmune encephalopathies and epilepsies in children and teenagers. Can J Neurol Sci. 2012;39(2):134-44.
35. Korff CM, Dale RC. The Immune System in Pediatric Seizures and Epilepsies. Pediatrics. 2017;140(3).
36. Toledano M, Britton JW, McKeon A, Shin C, Lennon VA, Quek AM, et al. Utility of an immunotherapy trial in evaluating patients with presumed autoimmune epilepsy. Neurology. 2014;82(18):1578-86.
37. Eyre M, Hacohen Y, Lamb K, Absoud M, Agrawal S, Gadian J, et al. Utility and safety of plasma exchange in paediatric neuroimmune disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2019;61(5):540-6.
38. Aso K, Watanabe K. Limitations in the medical treatment of cryptogenic or symptomatic localization-related epilepsies of childhood onset. Epilepsia. 2000;41 Suppl 9:18-20.
39. Wirrell EC, Wong-Kisiel LC, Nickels KC. Seizure outcome after AED failure in pediatric focal epilepsy: impact of underlying etiology. Epilepsy Behav. 2014;34:20-4.
40. Wirrell E, Camfield C, Camfield P, Dooley J. Prognostic significance of failure of the initial antiepileptic drug in children with absence epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;42(6):760-3.
41. Wheless JW. History of the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 2008;49 Suppl 8:3-5.
42. Kossoff EH, Dorward JL. The modified Atkins diet. Epilepsia. 2008;49 Suppl 8:37-41.
43. Pfeifer HH, Thiele EA. Low-glycemic-index treatment: a liberalized ketogenic diet for treatment of intractable epilepsy. Neurology. 2005;65(11):1810-2.
44. Kim JA, Yoon JR, Lee EJ, Lee JS, Kim JT, Kim HD, et al. Efficacy of the classic ketogenic and the modified Atkins diets in refractory childhood epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2016;57(1):51-8.
45. Kossoff EH, Zupec-Kania BA, Amark PE, Ballaban-Gil KR, Christina Bergqvist AG, Blackford R, et al. Optimal clinical management of children receiving the ketogenic diet: recommendations of the International Ketogenic Diet Study Group. Epilepsia. 2009;50(2):304-17.
46. Kossoff EH, Zupec-Kania BA, Auvin S, Ballaban-Gil KR, Christina Bergqvist AG, Blackford R, et al. Optimal clinical management of children receiving dietary therapies for epilepsy: Updated recommendations of the International Ketogenic Diet Study Group. Epilepsia Open. 2018;3(2):175-92.
47. Ciliberto MA, Limbrick D, Powers A, Titus JB, Munro R, Smyth MD. Palliative hemispherotomy in children with bilateral seizure onset. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;9(4):381-8.
48. Ilyas M, Sivaswamy L, Asano E, Sood S, Zidan M, Chugani H. Seizure control following palliative resective surgery for intractable epilepsy-a pilot study. Pediatr Neurol. 2014;51(3):330-5.
49. Chan AY, Rolston JD, Lee B, Vadera S, Englot DJ. Rates and predictors of seizure outcome after corpus callosotomy for drug-resistant epilepsy: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg. 2018:1-10.
50. Cross JH, Auvin S, Falip M, Striano P, Arzimanoglou A. Expert Opinion on the Management of Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome: Treatment Algorithms and Practical Considerations. Front Neurol. 2017;8:505.
51. Wheless JW, Gienapp AJ, Ryvlin P. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy update. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;88S:2-10.
52. Geller EB. Responsive neurostimulation: Review of clinical trials and insights into focal epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;88S:11-20.
53. Salanova V, Witt T, Worth R, Henry TR, Gross RE, Nazzaro JM, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of thalamic stimulation for drug-resistant partial epilepsy. Neurology. 2015;84(10):1017-25.
54. Yan H, Toyota E, Anderson M, Abel TJ, Donner E, Kalia SK, et al. A systematic review of deep brain stimulation for the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in childhood. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2018;23(3):274-84.
References
1. Camfield CS, Camfield PR, Gordon K, Wirrell E, Dooley JM. Incidence of epilepsy in childhood and adolescence: a population-based study in Nova Scotia from 1977 to 1985. Epilepsia. 1996;37(1):19-23.
2. Wirrell EC, Grossardt BR, Wong-Kisiel LC, Nickels KC. Incidence and classification of new-onset epilepsy and epilepsy syndromes in children in Olmsted County, Minnesota from 1980 to 2004: a population-based study. Epilepsy Res. 2011;95(1-2):110-8.
3. Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia. 2010;51(6):1069-77.
4. Berg AT. Defining intractable epilepsy. Adv Neurol. 2006;97:5-10.
5. Wirrell EC. Predicting pharmacoresistance in pediatric epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54 Suppl 2:19-22.
6. Kotagal P, Costa M, Wyllie E, Wolgamuth B. Paroxysmal nonepileptic events in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2002;110(4):e46.
7. Park EG, Lee J, Lee BL, Lee M, Lee J. Paroxysmal nonepileptic events in pediatric patients. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;48:83-7.
8. Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, Connolly MB, French J, Guilhoto L, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: Position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017;58(4):512-21.
9. Gayatri NA, Livingston JH. Aggravation of epilepsy by anti-epileptic drugs. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48(5):394-8.
10. Gelisse P, Genton P, Kuate C, Pesenti A, Baldy-Moulinier M, Crespel A. Worsening of seizures by oxcarbazepine in juvenile idiopathic generalized epilepsies. Epilepsia. 2004;45(10):1282-6.
11. Sazgar M, Bourgeois BF. Aggravation of epilepsy by antiepileptic drugs. Pediatr Neurol. 2005;33(4):227-34.
12. Thomas P, Valton L, Genton P. Absence and myoclonic status epilepticus precipitated by antiepileptic drugs in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 5):1281-92.
13. Perucca E, Gram L, Avanzini G, Dulac O. Antiepileptic drugs as a cause of worsening seizures. Epilepsia. 1998;39(1):5-17.
14. Knake S, Hamer HM, Schomburg U, Oertel WH, Rosenow F. Tiagabine-induced absence status in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Seizure. 1999;8(5):314-7.
15. Guerrini R, Dravet C, Genton P, Belmonte A, Kaminska A, Dulac O. Lamotrigine and seizure aggravation in severe myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1998;39(5):508-12.
16. Dhamija R, Moseley BD, Cascino GD, Wirrell EC. A population-based study of long-term outcome of epilepsy in childhood with a focal or hemispheric lesion on neuroimaging. Epilepsia. 2011;52(8):1522-6.
17. Yildiz EP, Gunes D, Bektas G, Aksu Uzunhan T, Tatli B, Caliskan M, et al. Predictive factors of drug-resistant epilepsy in children presenting under 2 years of age: experience of a tertiary center in Turkey. Acta Neurol Belg. 2018;118(1):71-5.
18. Wirrell EC, Wong-Kisiel LC, Mandrekar J, Nickels KC. What predicts enduring intractability in children who appear medically intractable in the first 2 years after diagnosis? Epilepsia. 2013;54(6):1056-64.
19. Moosa AN, Wyllie E. Focal epileptogenic lesions. Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;111:493-510.
20. Wirrell E, Wong-Kisiel L, Mandrekar J, Nickels K. Predictors and course of medically intractable epilepsy in young children presenting before 36 months of age: a retrospective, population-based study. Epilepsia. 2012;53(9):1563-9.
21. Mohamed A, Wyllie E, Ruggieri P, Kotagal P, Babb T, Hilbig A, et al. Temporal lobe epilepsy due to hippocampal sclerosis in pediatric candidates for epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 2001;56(12):1643-9.
22. Loddenkemper T, Cosmo G, Kotagal P, Haut J, Klaas P, Gupta A, et al. Epilepsy surgery in children with electrical status epilepticus in sleep. Neurosurgery. 2009;64(2):328-37; discussion 37.
23. Hnojcikova M, Nickels KC, Wetjen NM, Buchhalter JR, Raffel C, Wirrell EC. EEG and neuroimaging studies in young children having epilepsy surgery. Pediatr Neurol. 2010;43(5):335-40.
24. Saneto RP, Wyllie E. Epilepsy surgery in infancy. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2000;7(3):187-93.
25. Gowda S, Salazar F, Bingaman WE, Kotagal P, Lachhwani DL, Gupta A, et al. Surgery for catastrophic epilepsy in infants 6 months of age and younger. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2010;5(6):603-7.
26. Wyllie E. Surgery for catastrophic localization-related epilepsy in infants. Epilepsia. 1996;37 Suppl 1:S22-5.
27. Pearl PL. Amenable Treatable Severe Pediatric Epilepsies. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2016;23(2):158-66.
28. Shellhaas RA, Wusthoff CJ, Tsuchida TN, Glass HC, Chu CJ, Massey SL, et al. Profile of neonatal epilepsies: Characteristics of a prospective US cohort. Neurology. 2017;89(9):893-9.
29. Berg AT, Coryell J, Saneto RP, Grinspan ZM, Alexander JJ, Kekis M, et al. Early-Life Epilepsies and the Emerging Role of Genetic Testing. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(9):863-71.
30. Axeen EJT, Olson HE. Neonatal epilepsy genetics. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2018;23(3):197-203.
31. Coryell J, Gaillard WD, Shellhaas RA, Grinspan ZM, Wirrell EC, Knupp KG, et al. Neuroimaging of Early Life Epilepsy. Pediatrics. 2018;142(3).
32. Suleiman J, Brilot F, Lang B, Vincent A, Dale RC. Autoimmune epilepsy in children: case series and proposed guidelines for identification. Epilepsia. 2013;54(6):1036-45.
33. Suleiman J, Dale RC. The recognition and treatment of autoimmune epilepsy in children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2015;57(5):431-40.
34. Wong-Kisiel LC, McKeon A, Wirrell EC. Autoimmune encephalopathies and epilepsies in children and teenagers. Can J Neurol Sci. 2012;39(2):134-44.
35. Korff CM, Dale RC. The Immune System in Pediatric Seizures and Epilepsies. Pediatrics. 2017;140(3).
36. Toledano M, Britton JW, McKeon A, Shin C, Lennon VA, Quek AM, et al. Utility of an immunotherapy trial in evaluating patients with presumed autoimmune epilepsy. Neurology. 2014;82(18):1578-86.
37. Eyre M, Hacohen Y, Lamb K, Absoud M, Agrawal S, Gadian J, et al. Utility and safety of plasma exchange in paediatric neuroimmune disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2019;61(5):540-6.
38. Aso K, Watanabe K. Limitations in the medical treatment of cryptogenic or symptomatic localization-related epilepsies of childhood onset. Epilepsia. 2000;41 Suppl 9:18-20.
39. Wirrell EC, Wong-Kisiel LC, Nickels KC. Seizure outcome after AED failure in pediatric focal epilepsy: impact of underlying etiology. Epilepsy Behav. 2014;34:20-4.
40. Wirrell E, Camfield C, Camfield P, Dooley J. Prognostic significance of failure of the initial antiepileptic drug in children with absence epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;42(6):760-3.
41. Wheless JW. History of the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 2008;49 Suppl 8:3-5.
42. Kossoff EH, Dorward JL. The modified Atkins diet. Epilepsia. 2008;49 Suppl 8:37-41.
43. Pfeifer HH, Thiele EA. Low-glycemic-index treatment: a liberalized ketogenic diet for treatment of intractable epilepsy. Neurology. 2005;65(11):1810-2.
44. Kim JA, Yoon JR, Lee EJ, Lee JS, Kim JT, Kim HD, et al. Efficacy of the classic ketogenic and the modified Atkins diets in refractory childhood epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2016;57(1):51-8.
45. Kossoff EH, Zupec-Kania BA, Amark PE, Ballaban-Gil KR, Christina Bergqvist AG, Blackford R, et al. Optimal clinical management of children receiving the ketogenic diet: recommendations of the International Ketogenic Diet Study Group. Epilepsia. 2009;50(2):304-17.
46. Kossoff EH, Zupec-Kania BA, Auvin S, Ballaban-Gil KR, Christina Bergqvist AG, Blackford R, et al. Optimal clinical management of children receiving dietary therapies for epilepsy: Updated recommendations of the International Ketogenic Diet Study Group. Epilepsia Open. 2018;3(2):175-92.
47. Ciliberto MA, Limbrick D, Powers A, Titus JB, Munro R, Smyth MD. Palliative hemispherotomy in children with bilateral seizure onset. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;9(4):381-8.
48. Ilyas M, Sivaswamy L, Asano E, Sood S, Zidan M, Chugani H. Seizure control following palliative resective surgery for intractable epilepsy-a pilot study. Pediatr Neurol. 2014;51(3):330-5.
49. Chan AY, Rolston JD, Lee B, Vadera S, Englot DJ. Rates and predictors of seizure outcome after corpus callosotomy for drug-resistant epilepsy: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg. 2018:1-10.
50. Cross JH, Auvin S, Falip M, Striano P, Arzimanoglou A. Expert Opinion on the Management of Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome: Treatment Algorithms and Practical Considerations. Front Neurol. 2017;8:505.
51. Wheless JW, Gienapp AJ, Ryvlin P. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy update. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;88S:2-10.
52. Geller EB. Responsive neurostimulation: Review of clinical trials and insights into focal epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;88S:11-20.
53. Salanova V, Witt T, Worth R, Henry TR, Gross RE, Nazzaro JM, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of thalamic stimulation for drug-resistant partial epilepsy. Neurology. 2015;84(10):1017-25.
54. Yan H, Toyota E, Anderson M, Abel TJ, Donner E, Kalia SK, et al. A systematic review of deep brain stimulation for the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in childhood. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2018;23(3):274-84.
2. Wirrell EC, Grossardt BR, Wong-Kisiel LC, Nickels KC. Incidence and classification of new-onset epilepsy and epilepsy syndromes in children in Olmsted County, Minnesota from 1980 to 2004: a population-based study. Epilepsy Res. 2011;95(1-2):110-8.
3. Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia. 2010;51(6):1069-77.
4. Berg AT. Defining intractable epilepsy. Adv Neurol. 2006;97:5-10.
5. Wirrell EC. Predicting pharmacoresistance in pediatric epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54 Suppl 2:19-22.
6. Kotagal P, Costa M, Wyllie E, Wolgamuth B. Paroxysmal nonepileptic events in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2002;110(4):e46.
7. Park EG, Lee J, Lee BL, Lee M, Lee J. Paroxysmal nonepileptic events in pediatric patients. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;48:83-7.
8. Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, Connolly MB, French J, Guilhoto L, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: Position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017;58(4):512-21.
9. Gayatri NA, Livingston JH. Aggravation of epilepsy by anti-epileptic drugs. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48(5):394-8.
10. Gelisse P, Genton P, Kuate C, Pesenti A, Baldy-Moulinier M, Crespel A. Worsening of seizures by oxcarbazepine in juvenile idiopathic generalized epilepsies. Epilepsia. 2004;45(10):1282-6.
11. Sazgar M, Bourgeois BF. Aggravation of epilepsy by antiepileptic drugs. Pediatr Neurol. 2005;33(4):227-34.
12. Thomas P, Valton L, Genton P. Absence and myoclonic status epilepticus precipitated by antiepileptic drugs in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 5):1281-92.
13. Perucca E, Gram L, Avanzini G, Dulac O. Antiepileptic drugs as a cause of worsening seizures. Epilepsia. 1998;39(1):5-17.
14. Knake S, Hamer HM, Schomburg U, Oertel WH, Rosenow F. Tiagabine-induced absence status in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Seizure. 1999;8(5):314-7.
15. Guerrini R, Dravet C, Genton P, Belmonte A, Kaminska A, Dulac O. Lamotrigine and seizure aggravation in severe myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1998;39(5):508-12.
16. Dhamija R, Moseley BD, Cascino GD, Wirrell EC. A population-based study of long-term outcome of epilepsy in childhood with a focal or hemispheric lesion on neuroimaging. Epilepsia. 2011;52(8):1522-6.
17. Yildiz EP, Gunes D, Bektas G, Aksu Uzunhan T, Tatli B, Caliskan M, et al. Predictive factors of drug-resistant epilepsy in children presenting under 2 years of age: experience of a tertiary center in Turkey. Acta Neurol Belg. 2018;118(1):71-5.
18. Wirrell EC, Wong-Kisiel LC, Mandrekar J, Nickels KC. What predicts enduring intractability in children who appear medically intractable in the first 2 years after diagnosis? Epilepsia. 2013;54(6):1056-64.
19. Moosa AN, Wyllie E. Focal epileptogenic lesions. Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;111:493-510.
20. Wirrell E, Wong-Kisiel L, Mandrekar J, Nickels K. Predictors and course of medically intractable epilepsy in young children presenting before 36 months of age: a retrospective, population-based study. Epilepsia. 2012;53(9):1563-9.
21. Mohamed A, Wyllie E, Ruggieri P, Kotagal P, Babb T, Hilbig A, et al. Temporal lobe epilepsy due to hippocampal sclerosis in pediatric candidates for epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 2001;56(12):1643-9.
22. Loddenkemper T, Cosmo G, Kotagal P, Haut J, Klaas P, Gupta A, et al. Epilepsy surgery in children with electrical status epilepticus in sleep. Neurosurgery. 2009;64(2):328-37; discussion 37.
23. Hnojcikova M, Nickels KC, Wetjen NM, Buchhalter JR, Raffel C, Wirrell EC. EEG and neuroimaging studies in young children having epilepsy surgery. Pediatr Neurol. 2010;43(5):335-40.
24. Saneto RP, Wyllie E. Epilepsy surgery in infancy. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2000;7(3):187-93.
25. Gowda S, Salazar F, Bingaman WE, Kotagal P, Lachhwani DL, Gupta A, et al. Surgery for catastrophic epilepsy in infants 6 months of age and younger. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2010;5(6):603-7.
26. Wyllie E. Surgery for catastrophic localization-related epilepsy in infants. Epilepsia. 1996;37 Suppl 1:S22-5.
27. Pearl PL. Amenable Treatable Severe Pediatric Epilepsies. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2016;23(2):158-66.
28. Shellhaas RA, Wusthoff CJ, Tsuchida TN, Glass HC, Chu CJ, Massey SL, et al. Profile of neonatal epilepsies: Characteristics of a prospective US cohort. Neurology. 2017;89(9):893-9.
29. Berg AT, Coryell J, Saneto RP, Grinspan ZM, Alexander JJ, Kekis M, et al. Early-Life Epilepsies and the Emerging Role of Genetic Testing. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(9):863-71.
30. Axeen EJT, Olson HE. Neonatal epilepsy genetics. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2018;23(3):197-203.
31. Coryell J, Gaillard WD, Shellhaas RA, Grinspan ZM, Wirrell EC, Knupp KG, et al. Neuroimaging of Early Life Epilepsy. Pediatrics. 2018;142(3).
32. Suleiman J, Brilot F, Lang B, Vincent A, Dale RC. Autoimmune epilepsy in children: case series and proposed guidelines for identification. Epilepsia. 2013;54(6):1036-45.
33. Suleiman J, Dale RC. The recognition and treatment of autoimmune epilepsy in children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2015;57(5):431-40.
34. Wong-Kisiel LC, McKeon A, Wirrell EC. Autoimmune encephalopathies and epilepsies in children and teenagers. Can J Neurol Sci. 2012;39(2):134-44.
35. Korff CM, Dale RC. The Immune System in Pediatric Seizures and Epilepsies. Pediatrics. 2017;140(3).
36. Toledano M, Britton JW, McKeon A, Shin C, Lennon VA, Quek AM, et al. Utility of an immunotherapy trial in evaluating patients with presumed autoimmune epilepsy. Neurology. 2014;82(18):1578-86.
37. Eyre M, Hacohen Y, Lamb K, Absoud M, Agrawal S, Gadian J, et al. Utility and safety of plasma exchange in paediatric neuroimmune disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2019;61(5):540-6.
38. Aso K, Watanabe K. Limitations in the medical treatment of cryptogenic or symptomatic localization-related epilepsies of childhood onset. Epilepsia. 2000;41 Suppl 9:18-20.
39. Wirrell EC, Wong-Kisiel LC, Nickels KC. Seizure outcome after AED failure in pediatric focal epilepsy: impact of underlying etiology. Epilepsy Behav. 2014;34:20-4.
40. Wirrell E, Camfield C, Camfield P, Dooley J. Prognostic significance of failure of the initial antiepileptic drug in children with absence epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;42(6):760-3.
41. Wheless JW. History of the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 2008;49 Suppl 8:3-5.
42. Kossoff EH, Dorward JL. The modified Atkins diet. Epilepsia. 2008;49 Suppl 8:37-41.
43. Pfeifer HH, Thiele EA. Low-glycemic-index treatment: a liberalized ketogenic diet for treatment of intractable epilepsy. Neurology. 2005;65(11):1810-2.
44. Kim JA, Yoon JR, Lee EJ, Lee JS, Kim JT, Kim HD, et al. Efficacy of the classic ketogenic and the modified Atkins diets in refractory childhood epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2016;57(1):51-8.
45. Kossoff EH, Zupec-Kania BA, Amark PE, Ballaban-Gil KR, Christina Bergqvist AG, Blackford R, et al. Optimal clinical management of children receiving the ketogenic diet: recommendations of the International Ketogenic Diet Study Group. Epilepsia. 2009;50(2):304-17.
46. Kossoff EH, Zupec-Kania BA, Auvin S, Ballaban-Gil KR, Christina Bergqvist AG, Blackford R, et al. Optimal clinical management of children receiving dietary therapies for epilepsy: Updated recommendations of the International Ketogenic Diet Study Group. Epilepsia Open. 2018;3(2):175-92.
47. Ciliberto MA, Limbrick D, Powers A, Titus JB, Munro R, Smyth MD. Palliative hemispherotomy in children with bilateral seizure onset. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;9(4):381-8.
48. Ilyas M, Sivaswamy L, Asano E, Sood S, Zidan M, Chugani H. Seizure control following palliative resective surgery for intractable epilepsy-a pilot study. Pediatr Neurol. 2014;51(3):330-5.
49. Chan AY, Rolston JD, Lee B, Vadera S, Englot DJ. Rates and predictors of seizure outcome after corpus callosotomy for drug-resistant epilepsy: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg. 2018:1-10.
50. Cross JH, Auvin S, Falip M, Striano P, Arzimanoglou A. Expert Opinion on the Management of Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome: Treatment Algorithms and Practical Considerations. Front Neurol. 2017;8:505.
51. Wheless JW, Gienapp AJ, Ryvlin P. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy update. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;88S:2-10.
52. Geller EB. Responsive neurostimulation: Review of clinical trials and insights into focal epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;88S:11-20.
53. Salanova V, Witt T, Worth R, Henry TR, Gross RE, Nazzaro JM, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of thalamic stimulation for drug-resistant partial epilepsy. Neurology. 2015;84(10):1017-25.
54. Yan H, Toyota E, Anderson M, Abel TJ, Donner E, Kalia SK, et al. A systematic review of deep brain stimulation for the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in childhood. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2018;23(3):274-84.